Module 7, Session 4
Counseling and Social Skills Programs
Lecture Notes and Directions for Activities
In Unit 1, you learned about and practiced important skills in interpersonal
communication. Basically, this constitutes beginning training in basic
counseling skills. In working with any young person, it is important that
teachers first establish rapport and an effective working relationship.
Basic listening and facilitative communication helps to establish this
relationship. These skills provide an important foundation to effective
teaching and counseling. In Unit 2, effective counseling interventions
for the alternative classroom will be presented. The effectiveness in
using each of the counseling interventions discussed in sessions 4 and
5 is dependent upon your understanding and application of basic helping
skills and the important relationship you build with your students.
In the next two sessions, interventions that have been shown to be effective
with students who are at-risk and who have emotional and behavioral concerns
will be addressed in session 4. Social skills programs are emphasized
in session 4. Additional counseling interventions that are promising for
use in the alternative education classroom also will be summarized in
session 5.
Note: Please emphasize in the introduction to Unit 2 (session 4) the importance
of using basic counseling skills and relationship building skills as the
foundation for social skills programs and other counseling interventions.
Using these interventions as primarily didactic without using them in
the context of a helping relationship diminishes their potential as effective
interventions.
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What Works?
Generally, research related to effective interventions for students
with emotional and behavioral problems has been disappointing (see Dryfoos,
1998; Ellis & Sowers, 2001). For many years, it was thought that there
was little that could really be done to affect change for these students.
However, some guidelines have been shown over time to be necessary conditions
for effective programs.
Multi-agency and multi-component interventions are key to successful intervention
with students who are at-risk. Programs succeed because they are comprehensive.
Interventions that are done in isolation rarely are effective. Including
interventions that address multiple systems is important. Family, school,
community, peer networks are vital to effecting change for adolescents.
Efforts should be made to include these systems in any intervention. Including
multiple systems in intervention with youth often is difficult in any
school setting and perhaps especially so, in the alternative education
setting. However, it is well known that to whatever extent interventions
include these multiple systems, they are generally more effective. Also,
cooperation among many agencies and professionals also has been shown
to increase the effectiveness of counseling interventions. Teachers, counselors,
social workers, physicians, parents who work together can foster more
systematic and long-lasting change for students.
Early intervention also has been shown to be effective at reducing future
emotional and behavioral problems for students. When students have been
placed in the alternative education environment, particularly in the middle
to high grades, many prevention opportunities are gone. However, those
efforts that are preventative also can be interventions for those students
who already have exhibited some problem behaviors in school (McWhirter
et al., 1998). Dryfoos (1998) asserts, "yet you must believe that
it is not impossible to change the life scripts of older children"
(p. 138).
One on one attention in the form of individual counseling or other relationships
improves the success of interventions. Effective programs offer students
one on one attention to students. Other interventions in small and large
groups also can be effective, but access to one-one interventions also
must be available. This may be difficult to manage in an alternative education
classroom, but probably is not impossible. Cooperation with other trained
specialists, child aides, case managers, cross-age tutors, teacher-advisors,
and providing adjunctive services to students can help to meet this goal.
Empowering and motivating interventions that give control to students
are important. Giving students the tools they need to succeed and motivation
to change are keys to effective programs. Dryfoos (1998) cautions that
"empowerment" should not be "empty" phrases but getting
students involved, making them leaders, and making them responsible for
their own progress and success.
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Family involvement cannot be overlooked in effective interventions regardless
of the setting. The involvement of parents is key to successful intervention
in the school setting. Whenever possible, steps should be taken to involve
parents in their child's counseling program.
Lastly, Educational achievement must be emphasized in any program that
targets intervention with students who have behavioral and emotional concerns.
School achievement, as measured by grades, graduation rates, and promotion
are objectives of any counseling intervention in the alternative school
setting.
What Fails?
Some programs and types of programs simply do not work. Many programs that have been well established have shown no real long-term effect to the interventions. Some programs have not been properly evaluated, some have been unable to show effectiveness, and others still have been shown to exacerbate the problems of high-risk students (Dryfoos, 1998; Ellis & Sowers, 2001). Any effective program must not only show that it has the "ingredients" for a successful program but also to document that it is effective. For example, programs that lack comprehensive services, fail to address school problems, and fail to involve parents and peers will generally be ineffective at affecting long-term change. Be aware that these programs may show that students have gained knowledge or that their attitudes have changes somewhat. However, unless programs show effectiveness at changing behaviors-they cannot be considered effective. Furthermore, Dryfoos suggests that changing behaviors of professionals who work with high-risk youth is key-to change the behavior of one child, you may have to change the way 10 adults behave. Programs that have been popular are not necessarily effective. For example, "scare tactics" have been shown to be ineffective. Surprisingly, many touted drug programs such as "Just Say 'No'" and "DARE" have not shown to be effective. And crime prevention programs such as "McGruff" have been widely promoted and funded but do not show effectiveness at decreasing crime by youth (see Dryfoos).
What Are Social Skills Programs?
Social skills programs focus on social influences on behavior, social
competence, and prevention. More research support has been shown for social
skills curricula than for other related social skills methods (mentoring,
case management, or alternative sports and recreational activities) (Dryfoos,
1998).
Programs that include a few "core elements" are useful, but
comprehensive programs are more effective (Dryfoos; McWhirter et al.,
1998). Programs should be carefully designed and well implemented (Ellis
& Sowers, 2001). Programs are more effective when they are intentionally
designed to meet the needs of a specific individual or groups of individuals.
Social skills models are particularly helpful in the school setting because
instruction is the foundation of these programs. Social skills programs
vary in their content but generally are designed to teach competency,
decision-making, non-aggressiveness, and dealing with different social
relationships.
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Components of Social Skills
Programs
Curricular programs that target social skills training have been widely published. For example, the PREPARE curriculum was developed by Goldstein (1990). Other curricular programs are available. Components of social skills programs may include methods other than curriculum-based programs. These methods can be used in combination with social skills curricula. Peer mediation involves using trained peer mediators to resolve disputes between students. Peer tutoring involves having students help other students with informal and formal learning. Peer facilitation involves having students, who are trained in helping skills, to listen, offer support, and suggest alternatives to behavior to other students. (see McWhirter et al., 1998). These peer intervention programs are designed to counter negative peer influence and to use as advantage the power of the peer culture (McWhirter). However, a primary caution is the level of training and supervision of the peer helpers. This is of utmost concern in the alternative education setting. It has been suggested that an alternative to using same-age peer helpers is to use peers who are older (Dryfoos, 1998).
Keys to Success
Research shows that the individual who leads the sessions is important.
According to Dryfoos (1998) the "messenger" as powerful as the
message. Not only do the individuals who conduct the sessions make a difference,
but also involving individuals from the community seems to help make social
skills programs meaningful. For example, persons with AIDS have been shown
to be more effective at helping students change their sexual behaviors
than have classroom teachers.
Social skills curricula have been shown to be effective. However, research
also confirms the need for additional sessions, "booster" sessions
in subsequent years, and more sessions that address social competency
and the family (Dryfoos). Dryfoos recommends more intensity and more sustainability
as a key to the success of these programs. Curricula alone are not as
effective as using curricula as a cornerstone to more comprehensive and
systemic social skills intervention.
How to Teach Social Skills
The overall social skill task is broken down into stages and taught step
by step. Training in each social skill follows a basic five-step model
for teaching social skills (see McWhirter et al., 1998). Goldstein (1990)
calls a similar teaching method skillstreaming.
Teach. Instructions for performing the social skill are provided. A rationale
for the skill is provided, and students are given oral instructions on
how to perform the task.
Show. The specific skill is modeled for the student. The skill can be
"shown" by videotape, or the trainer or another student can
demonstrate it. Role-playing is one way to model the skill.
Practice. The student is encouraged to imitate and use the skill by role-playing
in the training session. The performance is evaluated with emphasis on
the correct aspects of the student's imitative behavior.
Reinforce. As the student role-plays additional problem situations, feedback
and encouragement are given. Further training is provided as needed to
shape and refine the modeled behavior.
Apply. Students are requested to perform the modeled skill in various
real-life situations. They record their experiences and report back at
the next session. The characteristics of successful and unsuccessful modeled
behaviors are reviewed and refinements introduced to the training as needed.
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Social Skills Curriculum*
*adapted from Ellis & Sowers, 1998; McWhirter et al., 1998
Social skills are often grouped into specific sessions to be taught. Most programs suggest conducting weekly sessions in small groups. This can also be modified for larger groups and individuals. Skills sessions may also be conducted more often and more intensively than suggested by specific program curriculum. Lastly, consider that these social skills really do not exist in isolation. Each one is related to the other. For example, solving interpersonal problems involves both problem-solving and interpersonal skills.
Problem-Solving. Problem solving is an important foundation for other sessions. Instruction in problem-solving, decision making processes helps to avoid problems and to manage problems in the alternative school setting. This includes problems to be solved that are interpersonal and social in nature. Students who are at-risk or high-risk may be more likely to engage in rigid thinking and perceive few alternatives to problems.
Interpersonal skills. Programs promote communication skills such as verbal and nonverbal communication, creation of healthy friendships, clear communication, and development of long-term love relationships. For older children and adolescents, the use of positive feedback and helpful communication rather than negative statements appears to be important. Interpersonal communication is central to many of the programs that have addressed social skills training. Along with interpersonal skills, many programs include training in assertiveness and refusal.
Anger control. Control of anger is a social skill that is relevant to many students in alternative education settings. Anger control strategies are designed to teach students ways to manage angry outbursts and to find alternative behaviors. At the root of these social skills is learning effective self-management and self-control. Methods for self-assessment, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement help to manage anger and reduce inappropriate angry behaviors.
Stress management. Many high-risk students are affected by stress and anxiety. Anxiety contributes to difficult individual and interpersonal characteristics. Reducing stress is key to the educational setting. Teaching students relaxation methods is an effective way to reduce anxiety.
Cognitive Behavioral Strategies
Social skills programs often use cognitive behavioral techniques to
teach skills to students and their families. These techniques help with
skill maintenance and skill transfer (Ellis & Sowers, 2001).
Cognitive-behavioral theory focuses on three primary propositions. First,
because cognitions affect behavior-cognitive
approaches are effective in changing behavior. Second, individuals control
their own learning. And third, cognition, behavior, and environment are
all interrelated; each affects and is affected by the other (from McWhirter
et al., 1998). Cognitive methods have been widely studied and shown to
be effective.
Cognitive restructuring involves changing negative cognitions. That is,
beliefs that are maladaptive are restructured to more effective beliefs.
More effective beliefs lead to more effective behaviors. In addition,
feelings are related to cognitions. Those that have rational thoughts
also have positive feelings about themselves, others, and their environment.
See Beck, 1991 and Ellis, 1996 for further information on cognitive-behavioral
strategies.
It will be common in the alternative education setting to encounter students
who have built irrational or faulty cognitions that affect their feelings,
attitudes, behaviors, and abilities to achieve in school.
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making
Instruction in problem solving and decision-making processes are central
to the use of social skills programs in alternative education classrooms.
A stage model for problem solving (i.e., DECIDE) was developed by McWhirter
et al., 1998. Many other models for problem-solving and decision-making
are available. The following model is included as an example of a problem-solving
approach for use in social skills training sessions.
Each step of the DECIDE model is discussed in further detail below. Remember
that teaching this session effectively includes using the instructional
model discussed earlier-teach, show, practice, reinforce, and apply.
Define the problem. State the problem as a goal to be reached. Assess
the goal. Will it address the problem? If it is met, will the individual
achieve what he/she wants?
Examine variables. Examine the specifics of the situation. Consider background
and environmental factors. Identify the feelings and thoughts associated
with this step. Questions and suggestions from the group are helpful at
this stage and at stage 1.
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Consider alternatives. Consider different ways of solving the problem.
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each alternative. Brainstorming
from the group is helpful.
Isolate a plan. Narrow down the alternatives until what seems to be the
best response or solution is attained. Determine a plan for carrying out
the alternative and consider consequences of the chosen plan.
Do action steps. Systematically go through the necessary steps to carry
out the plan. Demonstrate or role-play the actions or behaviors that make
up the solution plan.
Evaluate effects. Evaluate the effectiveness of the solution. Teach them
to look for effects in their thoughts and feelings. Analyze and evaluate
the outcome, review the decision, and if necessary, develop another plan
to achieve the goal.
Interpersonal Skills
Students in the alternative education environment will benefit from direct
instruction and practice of effective interpersonal communication skills.
These are primary skills included in social skills programs. Lack of effective
communication skills often leads students who are at-risk for emotional
and behavioral problems at a disadvantage in their social context. This
often leads to psychosocial and psychological difficulties.
Instruction in interpersonal communication skills has been included in
a number of resources for the classroom (see McWhirter et al., 1998 for
more information). For example, Stephens (1992) has developed a program
in interpersonal communication that is appropriate for children and adolescents.
These programs generally include skills in listening, understanding feelings,
empathy, and cooperation with others.
[Note: In Unit 1, you learned about and practiced many interpersonal communication
skills. Using these skills consistently in the classroom helps you to
model effective communication for your students. It also gives you a sense
of the kind of communication skills that are important for adolescents.]
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Assertiveness skills and resistance and refusal training are components
that are often included in social skills programs for at-risk and high-risk
students. Some students need instruction and practice in making their
thoughts and feelings known because they are withdrawn and isolated. Others
need assistance in making their needs and wants known in an appropriate
way-without inappropriate anger and aggression. Still others need assistance
in being able to "stand up" to peer pressure. Assertiveness
skills* are valuable for students in each of these social situations.
Assertiveness training usually includes effective communication of negative
feelings, ability to begin, continue, and end conversations, limit-setting,
and self-initiation. Attention also is given to nonverbal communication
in that many nonverbal behaviors are effective in being assertive. Resistance
and refusal training* are specifically designed to assist at-risk students
with resisting negative social influence. These sessions focus on identifying
and labeling social pressures and developing social behaviors that help
students to resist these pressures.
[*see McWhirter et al., 1998]
Anger Control
Anger control also is an important social skill to be included in training.
Instruction is targeted toward helping students to develop alternative
skills to manage anger and other difficult emotions & behaviors. Because
anger is a primary concern for many students who have emotional and behavioral
concerns, these sessions often are referred to as "anger control"
sessions. However, in general, these sessions are designed to help students
to learn self-management* and self-control*. Skills in self-management
and self-control help students to manage their feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors. They also aid students in educational achievements.
Skills in self-assessment*, self-monitoring*, and self-reinforcement*
can aid students in control of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Self-assessment
is the ability to evaluate one's own behavior. Self-ratings have been
used to help with this process. For example, a student might be asked
to rank the effectiveness or appropriateness of his/her behavior on a
scale from 1-10. Self-monitoring involves having students focus attention
on their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors and to become aware of them.
In many cases, you can have students to collect data on their own behavior.
Finally self-reinforcement means helping students to select consequences
for their own behavior. These consequences can be intrinsic such as self-encouragement
or extrinsic such as buying a selected item when a goal is met).
Cognitive restructuring* is a primary intervention strategy that helps
students to reorganize their thinking and therefore, their feelings and
behaviors. Cognitive restructuring requires the student to become aware
of and evaluate their faulty cognitions. The assumption of this strategy
is that by replacing ineffective thoughts with effective thoughts, the
student will be able to better control his or her own anger and resultant
behaviors.
[*see McWhirter et al., 1998]
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Stress Management
Many students who have emotional and behavioral difficulties will experience
significant amounts of stress and anxiety. Their lives are often complicated
and confused by multiple problems and challenges. Providing help with
monitoring and managing stress can be an important part of social skills
training sessions. These sessions can provide important coping mechanisms
for helping students to deal with considerable stress and anxiety.
Having effective stress management skills help students to improve their
relationships with others and their performance in school. People who
are anxious often have inappropriate reactions to interpersonal and intrapersonal
situations. Stress management teaches students to use relaxation responses
to anxiety and fear in either situation and to monitor their responses
and behaviors accordingly.
The most common strategies for stress management are relaxation techniques.
Progressive relaxation is an often-used and effective technique to use
with students. These exercises usually begin with tensing and un-tensing
muscles and concentration on relaxing and freeing the mind of thoughts.
Students are taught to use this type of relaxation response when they
feel nervous or afraid.
Visual imagery can accompany the use of relaxation techniques. Imagery
is used to increase comfort to cue a relaxation response. Visual images
allow the student to confront problems. The student can be guided through
a series of visual images that helps them to comfortably confront a problem
and to practice relaxation responses to the situation. Guided imagery
can be used to confront common problems such as anger, interpersonal relationships,
self-image, and with setting and attaining goals. Scripts for guided imagery
can be made specific to individuals or for groups and should be realistic
and focused.
Affirmations* are phrases that are used in conjunction with relaxation
and imagery that help students to increase positive thinking (e.g., "I
can do it, I have lots of strength, I think I can, etc.") [*see McWhirter
et al., 1998]
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Summary
Social skills programs include a various combinations of many different
topics such as anger control, interpersonal communication, stress and
anxiety management, and problem-solving. Sessions should not be limited
to a 'lock-step' curriculum but should be comprehensive and include other
topics, involvement with other professionals and family members, and subsequent
"booster" sessions. The end result of social skills programs
should be students' ability to choose the skill that pertains to their
individual or social situation.
Case Studies
Case studies are provided at the end of the session for your review and
practice. These cases were adapted from Ellis and Sowers (2001).
For each case, you are to review the case and describe a social skills
program that is appropriate for the student. Please be specific. Consider
the kinds of social skills that are important for the student and describe
some sessions in detail. Make sure to include strategies or techniques
that will be effective.
Also, please take some time to consider and to describe other programs
that would be helpful for the student (e.g., family interventions) taking
into account the guidelines for effective interventions for students in
the alternative school environment.
Finally, comparing your interventions with those of your peers will help
to generate additional ideas and discussion.
Also observe the interrelatedness of the interventions for each case.
The sessions you design can have multiple effects on the students' thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. For example, the problem-solving session may
include role-plays that include interpersonal communication.
Notes:
1. It is important to take each case in turn. Complete your comments
on one case before you go to the next. This will help to have rich ideas
and discussion on each case.
2. A variation on the case study activities is to intersperse the case
study activities throughout the session. Discuss the cases in response
to the different components of the module.
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